Writing a Scientific Paper

Writing the Introduction

The hypothesis is a clear statement that uses the information previously offered.  Prose such as: “we think,” or “the hypothesis was,” or “it is expected” is not necessary if the previous information is direct in providing support for the hypothesis. The hypothesis is not a shot in the dark.  A hypothesis is an educated guess and should be easily justified by the observations, or research conducted in the first step of the scientific methodA systematic approach to investigation using hypothesis testing..

The second “part” of the introduction has to do with justifying the experimental design.  Explaining how the experiment is a good test of the hypothesis usually involves a brief summary of the experiment with a clear justification as to why the dependent variable is a good indicator for this hypothesis.  Example: Joe wants to find out how many birds nest in the backyard.  He counts the nests instead of counting the number of prickly pear cactus plants since birds use nests for laying eggs and not prickly pear cactus plants.    

Tips:

• Keep the introduction concise and focused.
• Avoid including results or detailed methodology.
• Do not use direct quotations

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Writing the Methods

Your Audience is You

The audience is another class member, or your future self.  Provide only information specific to this experiment, relying on the knowledge from previous classes.  Including wordy description of procedures all students have performed (ex: how to use the microscope) is not necessary. 

Students can and should work from a list, but the materials should not be listed in the paragraphs.  The list should be used to make sure that all materials have been included in this section A cut or slice of the body or an organ for study. and have been described correctly as to the procedure used for each.  When describing materials, units are essential (volumes, weights, concentrations, temperature, time intervals and overall time).

The methods section, like the introduction section, has two informal “parts.”  The first “part” involves describing the procedure used to create the variations of the independent variable.  The second “part” of the methods section describes the collection of data for the dependent variable.  This part of the methods tends to be easily neglected by the student.  Calculations and statistics should be described here.  The conclusion of the methods section should transition to the next Results section by telling the reader what they should expect to see there.

Could you repeat it in a year?

This section explains how the research was conducted. It should be detailed enough for others to replicate your study. Since your audience is…well…you, think about what you might need to know one year from now in order to repeat this experiment.

1. Study Design:
   • Describe the type of study (e.g., experimental, observational).
   • Explain the rationale behind your design choices.
2. Participants or Subjects:
   • Specify the sample sizeThe number of subjects in a study or experiment. and selection criteria.
   • Provide demographic information if relevant.
3. Materials and Equipment:
   • List the tools, software, or equipment used.
   • Include specifications if necessary.
4. Procedure:
   • Describe the steps followed during the study.
   • Provide enough detail to ensure reproducibility.
5. Data Analysis:
   • Specify statistical methods or tools used for analysis.
   • Mention how you handled missing data or outliers.

Tips:

• Use subsections to organize this section.
• Write in the past tense.
• Avoid discussing results here.
• Do not list the materials.

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Writing the Results

Results sections include graphs inserted into the text of the paper and mentioned by figure number and name in the text.  This is the traditional publishing format and draws the reader to the visual displays.  The graph’s purpose is to summarize the raw data.  Often, raw data is not a useful presentation, and calculations, statistics, specific graphing techniques (ie: pie charts or frequency distributions) are preferred presentations of the dependent variable. Repeating or listing specific data values in the text is unnecessary if data labels have been inserted onto the graph. Including a data table in the rough draft of a paper is important to allow the instructor to interpret mistakes made in graphing.  The table may not be necessary for the final draft if the graph is complete.

Like the omission of a materials list, the results section should not be a list of data, but a concise presentation of only the most important data for interpretation in the next section.  Comparisons and trends are best presented in the text and complimented with specific values of both the independent and dependent variables. Using the words “increase” and “decrease” when discussing the fluctuation of the dependent variable is helpful in illustrating trends.

Often, it is tempting to interpret data in this section.  While working up a rough draft, including complete statements about the data is useful.  However, interpretations must be then edited and removed to the discussion section, leaving the results section as a concise summary of only the data points that will be interpreted in the next section.

Present your findings clearly and systematically.

1. Overview:
   • Begin with a brief summary of key results.
   • Arrange findings in the order of your objectives or hypotheses.
2. Data Presentation:
   • Use tables, graphs, or figures to present data visually.
   • Label all visuals clearly and provide captions.
3. Textual Explanation:
   • Describe the trends, differences, or patterns observed in the data.
   • Avoid interpreting the results in this section.
4. Statistical Results:
   • Report p-values, confidence intervals, or other statistical measures as applicable.

Tips:

• Be objective and stick to the data.
• Do not repeat data that are already presented in figures or tables.

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Discussion and Conclusion

Results sections include graphs inserted into the text of the paper and mentioned by figure number and name in the text.  This is the traditional publishing format and draws the reader to the visual displays.  The graph’s purpose is to summarize the raw data.  Often, raw data is not a useful presentation, and calculations, statistics, specific graphing techniques (ie: pie charts or frequency distributions) are preferred presentations of the dependent variable. Repeating or listing specific data values in the text is unnecessary if data labels have been inserted onto the graph. Including a data table in the rough draft of a paper is important to allow the instructor to interpret mistakes made in graphing.  The table may not be necessary for the final draft if the graph is complete.

Like the omission of a materials list, the results section should not be a list of data, but a concise presentation of only the most important data for interpretation in the next section.  Comparisons and trends are best presented in the text and complimented with specific values of both the independent and dependent variables. Using the words “increase” and “decrease” when discussing the fluctuation of the dependent variable is helpful in illustrating trends.

Often, it is tempting to interpret data in this section.  While working up a rough draft, including complete statements about the data is useful.  However, interpretations must be then edited and removed to the discussion section, leaving the results section as a concise summary of only the data points that will be interpreted in the next section.

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Title and Abstract

Title

The title is not a trivial part of a student paper and must be descriptive and unique.  Make your instructor want to read your paper first. Adding a descriptive title can involve the independent and dependent variables, or the larger implications of the experiment’s purpose.

Your title should:

• be concise, descriptive, and informative.
• include keywords that reflect the main focus of the research.
• avoid overly technical jargon unless the audience is specialized.

Students created an experiment with an organismA living individual made up of cells. known as Euglena. These little creatures were given the choice between light and dark conditions.

Examples of Real Student Titles:

Phototropism Determines Location of Flagellated Protist in Water Column
Estimating the Population of Euglena in Light and Dark Conditions
Flagellated and Photosynthetic Euglena Depth Preferences
How to Unexpectedly Cook Euglena with a Desk Lamp
Euglena: Come to the Dark Side

Of course, I read the paper with the last title first.

Abstract

Abstracts are hard to write. They are like mini-papers and have to be only about 150–250 words. That’s not a lot when you really get down to it. Abstracts have to be concise, not necessarily short. I worked for an advisor who changed the fishing industry and summed up his life’s work with a half page article in Nature. Using few words bestows more power upon each word.

Writing an abstract first is a terrible idea. Never do that. A complete perspective of the journey is needed to write an abstract. Often, students realize and learn more as they write their papers. These new comprehensions have to be invited to join the abstract.

Good Questions to Ask When Writing an Abstract

Objective: What is the purpose of the study?

Methods: How was the study conducted?

Results: What were the main findings?

Conclusion: What is the significance of the findings?

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References

• Follow the citation style required by your field (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago, or AMA).
• Ensure all in-text citations match the reference list.
• Include all sources used in your research.

Use the CSE Citation Generator!

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Why not go to Google for information used in this class? There are tons of websites I can look at that are easier than reading that scientific article. Correct. Those websites are also unregulated. Printed and broadcast information comes at a cost and are regulated for quality and accuracy. No newspaper wants to print and distribute copies with inaccuracies. No TV station wants to be known as the one misinforming their viewers. You may be thinking of some of the news outlets criticized in the last few US presidential elections. These news outlets believe and support what they print and/or broadcast. They do not believe that they are making wild, absurd, outrageous claims.

Anyone can publish anything they wish on the Web. There is no check and balance for reliability, credibility, or accuracy. I paid to make this site. No one’s going over it. My name is not even on this webpage. You don’t know who I am. I could be Randy Quaid. I can make all the wild and unsubstantiated claims I want. Here’s one:

THE MOON IS MADE OF CHEESE.

Some student somewhere will cite me on that. I feel bad for that student. The responsibility is on you to evaluate resources effectively.

Credibility and Reliability of Authors

• Is the name of the author/creator on the page?
• Are his/her credentials listed (occupation, years of experience, position or education)?
• Is there contact information, such as an email address, somewhere on the page?
• Is it clear who has the ultimate responsibility for the accuracy of the content of the material?
• If there is a link to a homepage, is it for an individual or for an organizationThe structured arrangement of biological systems.? If the author is with an organization, does it appear to support or sponsor the page?
• If the owner is not identified, what can you tell about the origin of the site from the address?
• If an institution supports the information, have you heard of it before? Can you find more information about it?
• Is there a non-Web equivalent of this material that would provide a way of verifying its legitimacy?

Note: To find relevant information about the author, check personal homepages on the Web, and information retrieved through search engines. If you want to cite webpages, you have to know about the person writing them. If an author of a webpage chooses not to add their name, they aren’t claiming authorship. You probably don’t want to use that source.

Purpose & Audience

Knowing the motive behind the page’s creation can help you judge its content. You should always be reading articles, papers, and websites that are at the appropriate level of learning for your class.

• Who is the intended audience?
  • Scholarly audience of education
  • Experts in industry?
  • General public?
  • Slightly informed public?
• If not stated, what do you think is the purpose of the site? Is the purpose to:
  • Inform or Teach?
  • Explain or Enlighten?
  • Persuade?
  • Sell a Product?

Use these questions to assess if you are reading articles that are appropriate to this class. Don’t use Mr. Roger’s 7th grade science class website. Don’t use some PhD dissertation from 1976.

Accuracy

• Can the information be verified? Can you verify any of the information in independent sources or from your own knowledge?
• Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it unsupported by evidence?
• Are quotes and other strong assertions backed by sources that you could check through other means?
• Has the information been reviewed?
• If timeliness of the information is important, is it kept up-to-date? Is there an indication of when the site was last updated?
• Is the information free of grammatical, spelling, or typographical errors?

Note: I just realized that my own website does not meet all these requirements.

Buyer Beware

Ultimately, the reliability and availability of your resources is your responsibility. Always be questioning the credentials of all websites you use. Be very critical of any information you find on the Web and carefully examine each site. Web pages are susceptible to both accidental and deliberate alteration.

Even more devastating is the factA statement based on direct observation that is repeatedly confirmed. that websites and may move or disappear with no notice. In 2001, someone sent me a link for this website:

http://www.peepresearch.org/

It’s absurdly awesome, or awesomely absurd. This website has a .org ending, indicating that the host is probably a non-profit organization, possibly educational. But, did you know that in 2019 the .org domain was sold off to a private company? Check the publication date on any .org website. Don’t assume that it is definitely non-profit.

Where did you go Bernadette?

Frustrating to both instructors and students alike are disappearing webpages. When I get a link in a reference list from a student and the link leads nowhere, I don’t know if the student deliberately put a broken link in there. I am uncertain if the student deliberately put a broken link there. Their website might have disappeared since the time wrote their paper. The website could have vanished before I got to grading things.

Print out or download all pages you plan to use in your research.

Are you sure the Web is where you want to be? It may take an hour to find the answer to a question on the Web that would take a Reference Librarian two minutes to find. Many educational institutions have librarians that will meet with you online. Some institutions even have librarians on a live chat.

When in doubt, ask a Librarian!

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Word Choices and Grammar

Verb Tense

Abstract: past tense
Introduction: present tense
Methods: past tense
Results: past tense
Discussion: past tense when discussing results of the currentThe flow of electrical charge, as in ions moving across a neuron’s membrane. study
present tense when discussing larger implications of study

Use the present tense for generalizations and stable conditions. For example, use present tense to describe a theoryA well-tested and widely accepted explanation. that is currently held: “Theory of mind refers to”.

Use past tense for specific citations and when referring to specific results; e.g., “Sudley (1969) showed”, “We found”. Never report descriptions of behavior in the future or subjunctive tense; “The female will (would) vocalize” becomes simply “The female vocalized”.

Passive vs. Active Voice

Scientific papers shift tense and shift perspective in each section. In general, third person is the acceptable form of grammar for scientific papers. This means that something about the experiment will be the subject of the paper. No one cares about you, your colleagues, you lab mates, or anyone else doing the experiment. Therefore, those things should be avoided as subjects of sentences. Active voice is usually clearer and more to the point.
Replace “nests are built” with “birds build nests”. Don’t be afraid to use the passive voice if it really is clearer, but favor using subject, verb, object.

Examples:
Passive: It is recommended by the authors of the present study that sugar not be given to children right before bedtime.
Active: We recommend that you do not give children sugar before bedtime.

Passive: The wood lice were exterminated by the nematodes.
Active: The nematodes exterminated the wood lice.

Do not use first person or refer to “the experimenters” in the paper. Avoiding this is very tricky. A good way to do this is to be sure that a material or a method is the subject of a sentence. The following examples have the subject of the sentence in bold text. The last, acceptable example is the only sentence that puts the experiment front and center by using an aspect of the experiment as the subject.

Unacceptable: The experimenters measured the size of the balloon.

Unacceptable: I/we measured the size of the balloon.

Acceptable: The size of the balloon was measured.

Affect vs. Effect

Affect is a verb meaning “to influence.” Effect is a noun meaning “a
result”. One thing affects something else, but something causes an effect. Also be careful, affect is also a noun mean “emotion”.

Incorrect: The drug effected participants’ behavior. Our study showed a large affect.
Correct: The drug affected participants’ behavior. Our study showed a large effect.

Support vs. Proves

In general we are cautious with our results. The word “prove” indicates something has been shown to occur beyond a shadow of a doubt. Therefore, avoid using it. Also, we can’t prove much in one experiment. It’s only one experiment! Since the scientific process relies on replication of results, results from a single study only “suggest” or “indicate”. They never “prove”.

Less vs. Fewer

My grandmother told me how to remember when to use less or fewer: One less, many fewer. What she meant is that if one student drops my class, I have one less student. If two students drop my class, I have two fewer students (please don’t drop my class). I have found that people use the word less when they should really be using fewer.

Less: When referring to collective noun (e.g., “less time”)
Fewer: When referring to multiple items (e.g., “fewer copulations”)

Which vs. That

As a general rule, if changing “which” to “that” does not alter the
meaning, then “that” is probably correct.

Former and Latter

Avoid using these words to refer back. Doing so doesn’t save many
words, and too often it makes the reader backtrack to determine which was which. Never make your reader have to look back!

Because vs. Since

“Because” is often clearer than “since”.

Insure vs. Ensure

You buy insurance for your car so that you are insured (protected) if someone hits you. You ensure (make certain) that the results of your experiment are able to be replicated.

Don’t use these words	Use these instead
fact	evidence
prove	support
plays an important role	is important because
due to the fact that	because
a decreased number of	fewer
time period	time
longer time period	longer
brown in color	brown
round in shape	round
has been shown to be	is
it is possible that	may
exhibit	show
demonstrate	show
utilize	use
in other words	thus/hence/therefore
insure	ensure
in this experiment/study	eliminate
it is interesting to note that	eliminate
it would thus appear that	eliminate
it may seem reasonable to suppose that	eliminate
Interestingly	eliminate

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