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Graves’ Disease
Hyperthyroidism
Graves’ Disease
Cause: Auto-antibodies mimic TSH, overstimulating the thyroid gland Endocrine gland regulating metabolism through thyroid hormones. to produce excessive thyroid hormone (TH): Includes T3 and T4, regulating metabolism..
Symptoms: Weight loss despite increased appetite, rapid heartbeat, anxiety, heat intolerance, bulging eyes (exophthalmos), tremors.
Lab Values: High T3/T4, Low TSH
Treatment: Anti-thyroid medications, radioactive iodine therapy, or surgical removal of part of the thyroid.
Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
Hypothyroidism
Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
Cause: Autoimmune destruction of thyroid follicular cellsCells surrounding the oocyte that support its development., leading to decreased thyroid hormone production.
Symptoms: Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, dry skinThe body’s largest organ, providing protection and regulation., constipation, depression, possible goiter formation.
Lab Values: Low T3/T4, High TSH
Treatment: Lifelong thyroid hormone replacement therapy (levothyroxine/Synthroid).
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin Deficiency
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Cause: Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cellsThe basic structural and functional units of life., eliminating insulin production.
Symptoms: Polyuria (excessive urination), polydipsiaExcessive thirst. (excessive thirst), polyphagia (excessive hunger), weight loss, fatigue, DKA risk.
Lab Values: High blood glucoseA simple sugar that is the main source of energy for cells. (>126 mg/dL fasting), elevated HbA1c
Treatment: Lifelong insulin injections or pump, blood glucose monitoring, diet management.
Addison’s Disease
Primary Adrenal Insufficiency
Addison’s Disease
Cause: Autoimmune destruction of the adrenal cortexOuter portion of the adrenal glands producing corticosteroids., reducing cortisolA glucocorticoid involved in stress response, metabolism, and immune regulation. and aldosteroneA hormone that increases sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys, helping regulate blood pressu production.
Symptoms: Chronic fatigue, muscle weakness, weight loss, low blood pressureThe force exerted by gases in the respiratory system, affecting airflow and gas exchange., hyperpigmentation (bronze skin), salt craving.
Lab Values: Low cortisol, low aldosterone, high ACTH, low sodium(Na⁺): Major ECF cation; important for fluid balance, nerve function., high potassium(K⁺): Major ICF cation; essential for muscle and nerve function.
Treatment: Hormone replacement with hydrocortisone (cortisol) and fludrocortisone (aldosterone).
Cushing’s Disease
Excess Cortisol
Cushing’s Disease
Cause: Pituitary tumor secreting excess ACTH, causing adrenal glands to overproduce cortisol.
Symptoms: Moon face, buffalo hump, central obesity, purple striae, easy bruising, muscle weakness, hyperglycemia.
Lab Values: High cortisol, high ACTH (if pituitary), high blood glucose
Treatment: Surgical removal of pituitary tumor, medications to block cortisol production, or adrenalectomy.
Acromegaly
Excess Growth Hormone
Acromegaly
Cause: Pituitary tumor producing excessive growth hormone(GH): Stimulates growth and metabolism. in adults after growthAn increase in size and number of cells. plates have closed.
Symptoms: Enlarged hands, feet, and facial features; jaw protrusion; joint pain; carpal tunnel syndrome; deepened voice.
Lab Values: Elevated GH, elevated IGF-1
Treatment: Surgical removal of pituitary tumor, medications (somatostatinInhibits GH, insulin, and glucagon secretion. analogs), radiation therapy.
Prolactinoma
Excess Prolactin
Prolactinoma
Cause: Benign pituitary tumor secreting excessive prolactin(PRL): Promotes milk production..
Symptoms: In females: irregular periods, galactorrhea (breast milk production), infertility. In males: erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, gynecomastia.
Lab Values: Elevated prolactin (>200 ng/mL suggests tumor)
Treatment: Dopamine agonists (cabergoline, bromocriptine) to shrink tumor; surgery if medication fails.
Pheochromocytoma
Excess CatecholaminesNeurotransmitters derived from tyrosine: dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
Pheochromocytoma
Cause: Tumor of chromaffin cellsAdrenal medulla cells that secrete catecholamines. in the adrenal medullaInner part of adrenal glands producing catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine). producing excessive epinephrineadrenaline): Fight-or-flight hormone from the adrenal medulla. and norepinephrineA neurotransmitter involved in attention, arousal, and the fight-or-flight response..
Symptoms: Episodic “attacks” with severe hypertension, headaches, profuse sweating, rapid heartbeat, tremors, anxiety, pallorAn unusual paleness of the skin due to reduced blood flow.An unusual paleness of the skin due to red.
Lab Values: Elevated plasmaThe liquid component of blood. metanephrines, elevated 24-hour urinary catecholamines and metanephrines
Treatment: Surgical removal of tumor (adrenalectomy); pre-op alpha-blockers to control blood pressure, followed by beta-blockers.
Endemic Goiter
Iodine Deficiency
Endemic Goiter
Cause: Dietary iodine deficiency preventing thyroid hormone synthesis; thyroid enlarges trying to compensate.
Symptoms: Visible neckNarrow region just below the head; common fracture site. swelling (goiter), difficulty swallowing or breathing if large, hypothyroid symptomsSubjective experiences reported by the patient (e.g., nausea, fatigue)..
Lab Values: Low T3/T4, High TSH, low urinary iodine
Treatment: Iodine supplementation, iodized salt in diet, thyroid hormone replacement if hypothyroid.
Diabetes Insipidus
ADH Deficiency/Resistance
Diabetes Insipidus
Cause: Central DI: inadequate ADH production. Nephrogenic DI: kidney resistance to ADH.
Symptoms: Extreme polyuriaExcessive urine output. (up to 20L/day), polydipsia, dehydrationA condition in which fluid loss exceeds intake, leading to a decrease in total body water. risk, dilute urineThe liquid waste excreted by the kidneys., disrupted sleep.
Lab Values: Low urine osmolality (<200 mOsm/kg), high serum osmolality, normal blood glucose
Treatment: Central: desmopressin (synthetic ADH). Nephrogenic: treat underlying cause, thiazide diuretics, low-salt diet.
Congenital Hypothyroidism
Cretinism
Congenital Hypothyroidism
Cause: Absent or underdeveloped thyroid gland at birth, or genetic defects in thyroid hormone synthesis.
Symptoms: If untreated: severe intellectual disability, stunted growth, delayed developmentThe process of growth and differentiation., coarse facial features, umbilical hernia.
Screening: Newborn screening in first days of life; elevated TSH, low T4
Treatment: Immediate thyroid hormone replacement prevents intellectual disability; must be started within first month of life.