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The Urinary System · Chapter 1 of 7
A routine urinalysis at forty-nine, a small plus sign beside “protein”, and a note that says recheck it sometime. This chapter builds the urinary systemThe organ system that removes waste and maintains fluid balance. from the outside and teaches you to read a urinalysis the way a clinician should have — before deciding whether a trace is noise or an alarm.
The question you will answer
A trace of protein on a dipstick is usually nothing. What has to be true of the patient, and of the next sample, before you can say that?
Opener · Filter and Regulator · about 1½ minutes
The opener is the same narrated animation you will watch in Scene 1.
Watch the opener first. It sets the question; the chapter answers it.
1
Read the chart
Patient chart · Stina
2024 · age 49
When
2024, age 49, a routine physical.
Urinalysis
Protein +. Color yellow, clear. Glucose negative. Blood negative. Leukocytes negative. Specific gravity 1.018.
Exam
Mild ankle swelling by evening, which she put down to standing to teach.
Told
“A little protein. Probably nothing — recheck it sometime.”
Behind it
A decade of undiagnosed inflammation; serum amyloid A high for years (Blood module); MGUS since 40.
Chart clues this module: 1 · this chapter
Before you go on · your prediction
One plus sign for protein, no blood, no glucoseA simple sugar that is the main source of energy for cells., no leukocytes, mild evening ankle swelling. The most likely reading is…
Open the one you lean toward. Nothing is recorded and nothing is revealed — you come back to it at the end.
A benign trace — fever, exercise or standing all day can do it, and a repeat will be clear
Hold it. Ask what would have to be true of the next sample, and of the ankles, for this to stay benign. Watch for the two numbers that decide it.
A tubule that failed to reclaim the small proteins a healthy filter always lets through
Ask, at the scenes, which proteinsLarge molecules made of amino acids with various functions in the body. a healthy filter passes and which it never does — and which one a dipstick mostly detects.
A filter letting through the one protein it is built to hold
Albumin is the dividing line of filtrationThe process by which fluid moves out of capillaries into surrounding tissues due to hydrostatic pres. Ask what else moves with albuminA plasma protein that helps maintain osmotic pressure and transport substances. when it leaks, and where you would see that on an exam.
From Stina’s diary
2024 · age 49 · “A little protein” — the line that scrolled past
2
The story
Three short movements: the case, the anatomyThe study of the structure of the human body. and physiologyThe study of how the body functions., then the tie back to Stina. Each links to the scene where you’ll see it move.
I · The plus sign
It arrived on a routine lab report, the kind that scrolls past in a busy clinic: a small plus sign beside “protein” on Stina’s urinalysis. No pain, no blood, no fever. Her ankles swelled a little by evening, which she put down to standing at the front of a classroom all day. The note beside the result said what such notes often say: a little protein, probably nothing, recheck it sometime. In a healthy person a single trace after a hard workout or a fever really can be nothing. Stina was not a blank slate.
See it move: Scene 2 · Read the Dipstick · Scene 5 · The Kidney at 4×
II · The system, and the report card it writes
The urinary system’s macroanatomy does not have many parts: two kidneys, retroperitoneal Referring to organs located behind the peritoneum, such as the kidneys and pancreas. like the pancreasA gland that produces digestive enzymes and hormones like insulin and glucagon. and the duodenumThe first section of the small intestine where most digestion occurs; it receives chyme, bile, and p, the left slightly higher than the right; two ureters; a bladderA muscular organ that stores urine before excretion. suspended by ligaments that is mostly a storage unit; and a urethraThe tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. to the outside — combined with the reproductive tract in people with a long urethra, separate in people with a short one. It is a mucous membrane, open to the outside and kept moist. Blood enters each kidney from the descending aorta and leaves by the renal vein; what the kidney removes leaves by the ureterThe tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.. Urine is the kidney’s report card. It is yellow from urochrome, the breakdown of hemoglobinThe oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells that gives blood its red color.; clear, because cloudiness means bacteria and white cellsThe basic structural and functional units of life. — pyuria; it smells of nitrogenous wastesMetabolic waste products like urea, creatinine, and uric acid, excreted by the kidneys. and, standing, of ammonia. Its solute load shows in its color, its specific gravityA measure of urine concentration that compares the density of urine to water. against distilled waterThe universal solvent essential for life., and its osmolarityA measure of solute concentration in fluid; affects fluid movement between compartments.. It carries what plasmaThe liquid component of blood. must be rid of in wide ranges — sodium(Na⁺): Major ECF cation; important for fluid balance, nerve function., far more potassium(K⁺): Major ICF cation; essential for muscle and nerve function. than plasma tolerates, urea at astonishing concentrations, creatinine, uric acidA substance that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution. — and it should never carry what the body was saving for the next famine: no glucose (glycosuria), no ketones beyond a trace (ketonuria), no red cells (hematuria), no white cells, and, above all, almost no protein larger than the albumin that every glomerulusA network of capillaries in the nephron where blood filtration occurs. is built to hold. One to two liters a day; polyuriaExcessive urine output. above two, oliguria below half a liter, anuria at none.
See it move: Scene 1 · Filter and Regulator · Scene 2 · Read the Dipstick · Scene 3 · What Should Never Be There · Scene 4 · Plasma Versus Urine · Scene 5 · The Kidney at 4×
III · Reading it through the history
A dipstick mostly detects albumin. Albumin is the dividing line of glomerular filtration — the protein just larger than the fenestrations — so a plus sign for albumin is not a tubule failing to reclaim scraps; it is the filter letting through the one thing it exists to hold. Whether that is a benign trace or the first knock at a door depends on two things the report did not carry: the history behind it, and what the next, quantified sample does. This chapter asks you to insist on both.
See it move: Scene 3 · What Should Never Be There · Scene 5 · The Kidney at 4×
3
Watch · explore · think · check
5 scenes. Each one has a short animation or a slide, something to explore, a true/false spot-check of your thinking, and a quick check. Every scene gives you an evidence card for your board.
How to read the scenes
- Animation (dark teal) — a short animated explainer, one idea each
- Slide (dark teal) — a still to study: a micrograph, a diagram or a map
- Explore (purple) — something to push on while you watch
- Game (purple) — a quick challenge
- Think (gold) — reason it out, then spot-check yourself with a few true/false questions; not graded
- Check (gold) — a quick H5P that scores itself
Scene 1 of 5
Filter and Regulator
Two enormous jobs in one bean-shaped organ.
Animation · narrated, with captions
Filter and Regulator
Module 19 · 19.1 · Opener and Scene 1 · 5 scenes · 1½ minutes · narrated. Press Play to start; the words appear in the caption box under the picture.
Scene 1
Paused
Keyboard: when the picture has focus, Space plays or pauses, the left/right arrow keys move between scenes, and M mutes or unmutes.
Text description and full narration
Five-scene narrated animation with captions, built from BioRender figures: a front view of the urinary system, a slice through the waist, two outlines comparing a long and a short urethra, the bladder wall, the urinary system with its blood vessels, and a cut kidney.
Scene 1 · Two kidneys, high and behind (0:00–0:21)
On screen: Left: a front view of a woman’s abdomen showing two kidneys high on either side, their ureters and the bladder; the kidney on the body’s left sits a little higher. Right: a slice through the waist seen from above, with the front at the top. The abdominal organs fill the front; a dashed teal line, the peritoneum, lines the cavity; the two kidneys and the spine sit behind it. Label: “behind the lining: retroperitoneal”. A note appears: “Only one kidney? The other compensates.”
Narration: The urinary system, it doesn’t have many parts. There are two kidneys, retroperitoneal, so they’re behind the lining of the abdomen. And the left one sits just a little bit higher than the right. If you only have one kidney, that’s okay. The other one tries to compensate, does it pretty well.
Scene 2 · Ureters, bladder, urethra (0:21–0:42)
On screen: Two outlines side by side, each showing kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Labels in the middle point to the ureters, the bladder (“a storage unit, held up by ligaments”) and the urethra. Under the left outline: “long urethra: shared exit with the reproductive tract”. Under the right outline: “short urethra: separate exits”.
Narration: Two ureters carry urine down to the bladder, which is suspended by ligaments, and mostly just a storage unit. And a urethra carries urine to the outside. In people with a long urethra, the urinary and reproductive systems share that exit. In people with a shorter one, they do not.
Scene 3 · A mucous membrane (0:42–0:54)
On screen: The bladder in cutaway with a magnified circle of its wall. Label: “mucous membrane: a moist lining open to the outside”. Beside it, a list of the body’s four mucous membranes — digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive — with urinary highlighted.
Narration: The whole tract is a mucous membrane, one of the four mucous membranes in the body, like the digestive and respiratory tracts, open to the outside, always kept moist.
Scene 4 · Blood in, two ways out (0:54–1:12)
On screen: The urinary system with its blood vessels: the descending aorta and the inferior vena cava run down the middle; renal arteries and veins join each kidney. Labels: “descending aorta”, “renal artery: blood in”, “renal vein: back to the body”, “ureter: what the kidney removed, out”. A red arrow follows blood in, a blue arrow back to the body, a gold arrow down the ureter.
Narration: Blood enters each kidney from the descending aorta by way of the renal artery. It has two ways home, though. It can go back to the body by way of the renal vein, or whatever the kidney has removed can go out by way of the ureter.
Scene 5 · A filter and a regulator (1:12–1:35)
On screen: A large cut kidney. The word “FILTER” stamps beside it, then “REGULATOR”. A pressure gauge and a blood-volume gauge appear, and a chain of chips reads: salt and water kept → blood volume → blood pressure. Final line: “A filter and a regulator.”
Narration: So, the first job is an obvious one, the kidney filters blood, but it does have a second job that is just as large, and later chapters will build on that. It decides how much salt, how much water you keep, and therefore how much blood you have, and what pressure it runs at, so it’s a filter and a regulator.
Prefer the full lecture? Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra (original video on the site)
Game
Two bodies, one system
Name the organs on two paper dolls, then decide what the length of the urethra changes.
Text description of this game
Two body outlines seen from the front. Body A has a long urethra and body B a short one. Step 1: eight numbered pins sit on the organs, four in each body, and you choose kidney, ureter, bladder or urethra for each. Step 2: for each body, decide whether urine and the reproductive output leave through one shared opening or through separate ones. Step 3: decide which kidney sits higher. Step 4: decide which kind of membrane lines the urinary tract. Each answer is checked only after you commit, with a short explanation.
Think · not graded
A mucous membrane is open to the outside. What does that mean for infection — and why would a shorter urethra change the odds?
Spot-check your thinking: true or false?
Check · Single Choice
What are the kidney’s two great roles?
Evidence card 1
Add it to your evidence board
The urinary tract is a mucous membrane open to the outside; the kidneys filter and regulate the blood.
Scene 2 of 5
Read the Dipstick
Color, clarity, gravity, and what should be absent.
Slide · a still to study
Urine Samples and the Dipstick
What the cup and the dipstick report
- Color: urochrome, a pigment from hemoglobin breakdown. Pale is dilute; amber is concentrated.
- Clarity: clear is normal. Cloudy can mean bacteria or white cells.
- Odor: from nitrogenous wastes. Urine left standing smells of ammonia.
- Specific gravity: 1.001–1.028.
- Osmolarity: 50–1200 mOsm/L.
- pHA measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.: 4.5–8.0.
A healthy filter keeps almost all protein out of the urineThe liquid waste excreted by the kidneys., so the protein pad should read negative.
Prefer the full lecture? Urine and Urinalysis (original video on the site)
Explore
The dipstick bench
Read each cup’s color and clarity, read its stick, and decide what the lab will report before you check.
Text description of this explore
Six urine cups on a lab bench, each drawn with its color and clarity, and a dipstick beside it with six pads: glucose, ketones, blood, protein, nitrite and leukocytes. For each cup you choose one report: glycosuria, ketonuria, hematuria, pyuria, proteinuria, or a normal, concentrated morning sample. Cup A: pale yellow, clear, glucose strongly positive. Cup B: dark yellow, clear, ketones strongly positive. Cup C: smoky red-brown, slightly cloudy, blood strongly positive with a trace of protein. Cup D: cloudy pale yellow, leukocytes strongly positive and nitrite positive. Cup E: yellow and clear with a foamy head, protein strongly positive and nothing else. Cup F: dark amber, clear, specific gravity 1.028, every pad negative. After you commit, each cup shows whether your call holds and why. Then a seventh cup, Stina’s 2024 sample: yellow, clear, specific gravity 1.018, protein one plus and nothing else. You write the one question you would ask before calling it benign, and then compare it with a model answer.
Think · not graded
Specific gravity and osmolarity both measure solute load. If a sample is dark and heavy, is the kidney working hard or barely producing? What else would you need to know?
Spot-check your thinking: true or false?
Check · Mark the Words
Mark the signsObjective clinical findings observable by a provider (e.g., edema, fever). of concentrated urine.
Evidence card 2
Add it to your evidence board
A dipstick reads solute load and the things that should be absent; one of them is albumin.
Scene 3 of 5
What Should Never Be There
The body is waiting for the next famine.
Animation · narrated, with captions
What Should Never Be There
Module 19 · 19.1 · Scene 3 · 6 scenes · 2 minutes · narrated. Press Play to start; the words appear in the caption box under the picture.
Scene 1
Paused
Keyboard: when the picture has focus, Space plays or pauses, the left/right arrow keys move between scenes, and M mutes or unmutes.
Text description and full narration
Six-scene narrated animation with captions. A BioRender filtration membrane separates the blood side from the urine side; BioRender red and white cells, glucose, albumin and protein shapes queue on the blood side, with drawn markers for a ketone and epinephrine; a drawn dipstick appears at the end.
Scene 1 · A rope with a bouncer (0:00–0:19)
On screen: A section of the filtration membrane fills the middle: the blood side at the bottom (pink), the urine side at the top (cream), with the endothelium, the basement membrane and the podocyte feet between them, and two filtration slits. A queue waits on the blood side: a red cell, a white cell, glucose, a ketone, a small protein, albumin, a larger protein and epinephrine, each named underneath. Chips: “the filtration membrane: a velvet rope with a bouncer” and “the body is waiting for the next famine: keep what is useful”.
Narration: A urinalysis is like the kidney's report card, and most of the lines on it should say negative. Think about the filtration membrane as like a rope, a velvet rope with a bouncer. And think of the body as waiting for the next, like, famine.
Scene 2 · Too big: cells (0:19–0:33)
On screen: The red cell and the white cell each rise to the membrane and bounce back: “too big”. Chips: “hematuria: red cells in urine”, “pyuria: white cells in urine”, and “either the membrane has broken down, or there is an infection”.
Narration: Red cells, white blood cells, they're far too large to be filtered. If you find them in urine, hematuria, pyuria, either the membrane has broken down or there's an infection.
Scene 3 · Passed, then pulled back (0:33–0:57)
On screen: Glucose slips through a slit to the urine side, then travels on to a tubule transporter at the right that pulls it back: “reclaimed by the tubule”. Chip: “glycosuria: the transporters are swamped or damaged”. A ketone slips through and stays: “ketonuria: more than a trace”.
Narration: Glucose is small enough to pass, it always does, but actually it gets pulled back by the tubule later on. Glucose in the urine, glycosuria, means that your transporters are swamped, or possibly damaged. Ketones spill over when the body is burning fat, and more than a trace is called ketonuria.
Scene 4 · The dividing line (0:57–1:22)
On screen: A small protein creeps through a slit slowly: “smaller than albumin: a trickle, normal”. Albumin rises to the membrane and is stopped: “albumin: just larger than the openings — the dividing line”. The larger protein stays put: “and everything bigger stays in the blood”.
Narration: Proteins are where it gets interesting. Proteins smaller than albumin pass through at a very low rate, and that's normal. Albumin itself is the dividing line, it is just barely larger than the openings in the filtration membrane. And albumin stays in blood, along with everything else that's bigger than it.
Scene 5 · Expected in urine (1:22–1:33)
On screen: Epinephrine passes freely to the urine side. Chip: “small polar molecules like epinephrine: expected in urine — that is how the body gets rid of them”.
Narration: Little tiny small polar molecules like epinephrine, they pass freely, and they're expected to be in urine. That's how the body gets rid of them.
Scene 6 · What the dipstick reads (1:33–1:54)
On screen: A urine dipstick appears with four pads: glucose, ketones, blood, protein. The protein pad changes colour to “+”. Chip: “a dipstick mostly detects albumin”. Then albumin slips through the membrane: “one plus sign = the one guest the bouncer was hired to stop”.
Narration: Now the point of the list, a dipstick mostly detects just albumin. So one plus sign for protein is not like a scrap of protein that the tubule forgot, it's the bouncer letting through the one guest that he was hired to stop.
Prefer the full lecture? Urine and Urinalysis (original video on the site)
Game
The bouncer’s list
You run the door. Decide who gets past the filter, who gets sent back to the blood and who never gets in.
Text description of this game
A velvet rope guards a door labelled the filter: endothelium, basement membrane and podocyte slits. Nine guests wait on the list: sodium, potassium, glucose, epinephrine, a protein smaller than albumin, albumin, a red blood cell, a white blood cell and a ketone. For each, choose: filtered and some stays in the urine; filtered, then reclaimed; or never filtered. The rope opens only after you commit, and each card then explains its answer. Step 2 asks which guest a dipstick’s protein pad mostly detects. Step 3 widens the filter’s openings and asks which guest crosses first.
Think · not graded
Glycosuria and proteinuria both mean something is in the urine that should not be. Which one blames the filter, and which one blames the tubule — and why does the answer depend on the size of the molecule?
Spot-check your thinking: true or false?
Check · Multiple Choice
Why does Stina’s trace of protein matter more than it would in a blank-slate patient?
Evidence card 3
Add it to your evidence board
Albumin is the dividing line of filtration; a dipstick plus sign is mostly albumin.
Scene 4 of 5
Plasma Versus Urine
Wide ranges out, tight ranges in.
Slide · a still to study
The Plasma-Versus-Urine Table
Plasma versus urine
- Sodium: plasma 135–145 mEq/L; urine 40–220 mEq/L.
- Potassium: plasma 3.5–5.0 mEq/L; urine 25–100 mEq/L.
- Bicarbonate: high in plasma, low in urine.
- Urea: plasma 8–25 mg/dL; urine about 1800 mg/dL.
- Creatinine: low and steady in plasma; concentrated many times over in urine.
- Uric acid: low in plasma, where too much crystallizes in joints (gout); concentrated in urine.
From the site’s Urine and Urinalysis mini-lecture.
How much urine
- Normal: 1–2 L a day.
- Polyuria: more than 2 L a day.
- Oliguria: less than 0.5 L a day.
- Anuria: no urine at all.
- Below about 400 mL a day, nitrogenous wastes are not being excreted.
- Angiotensin II, aldosteroneA hormone that increases sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys, helping regulate blood pressu and ADH all lower output.
Mr. Wu made 18 mL an hour, about 430 mL a day: oliguria.
Prefer the full lecture? Urine and Urinalysis (original video on the site)
Game
Which fluid?
Sort each lab value onto the plasma column or the urine column, then name the solute it belongs to.
Text description of this game
Eight value cards on a sorting desk: 4.2 g/dL, 85 mg/dL, 140 mEq/L, 1800 mg/dL, 12 mg/dL, 24 mEq/L, 0 mg/dL and 60 mEq/L. For each card you decide whether it belongs to plasma or to urine, and choose the solute: albumin, glucose, sodium, urea, potassium or bicarbonate. After you commit, each card shows the answer and why. Step 2 asks what happens to the plasma column if the kidney stops making urine.
Think · not graded
We make hydrogen ionsCharged atoms or molecules. all day and always need bicarbonate(HCO₃⁻) – A crucial buffer in blood that helps maintain pH balance; formed when carbon dioxide react. Why is bicarbonate high in plasma and low in urine — and what would the urine look like if the kidney were failing to secrete acid?
Spot-check your thinking: true or false?
Check · Drag the Words
Place the four urinary organs and the fluid each carries.
Evidence card 4
Add it to your evidence board
Urine keeps plasma in its tight ranges; the numbers tell you which job the kidney is doing.
Scene 5 of 5
The Kidney at 4×
Cortex, medulla, and the bull’s-eyes that live in only one of them.
Slide · a still to study
Cortex and Medulla on a Slide
Read the slide
- Cortex: renal corpuscles, the bull’s-eyes, among convoluted tubules. Corpuscles are found only here.
- Medulla: straight tubules only, nephronThe functional unit of the kidney that filters blood and produces urine. loops and collecting ducts, and no corpuscles.
- Medullary rays run from the cortex down into each pyramid.
- Arcuate vessels mark the junction between cortex and medulla.
- The papilla, the tip of each pyramid, drains urine into a minor calyxA small cavity in the kidney where urine from a renal pyramid collects before moving to the major ca.
This is the histology map every later chapter uses. A biopsy needle aims for the cortex, because that is where the filters are.
Prefer the full lecture? Kidney Anatomy (original video on the site) · histology page: Renal Corpuscles
Game
Where am I?
Name the region of each field before the label appears, and the one clue that decided it.
Text description of this game
Five fields of view from the site’s kidney slides. For each, choose the region (cortex, medulla, corticomedullary junction or papilla) and the clue that decided it (corpuscles present; only straight tubules; a large arcuate vessel; the pyramid’s tip bordering the pelvis). Field 1, H&E at 10×: three round tufts inside clear rings among tubules. Field 2, H&E at 40×: rows of tubules with open lumens and no tufts. Field 3, H&E at 4×: a large thick-walled vessel running sideways. Field 4, trichrome at 4×: streaked blue-grey tissue ending at a white open space. Field 5, a special stain at 40×: two capillary tufts in clear spaces. After you commit, each field shows its region and why. Step 2 is the biopsy question: which region a 1 mm needle core from Stina’s kidney must contain.
Think · not graded
A renal biopsy needle takes a core about a millimetre wide. If a disease lives in the filter, which region must the core include — and what would a pathologist conclude from a core that held only loops and collecting ducts?
Spot-check your thinking: true or false?
Check · Multiple Choice
Which region of a kidney slide contains renal corpuscles?
Evidence card 5
Add it to your evidence board
The filter lives in the cortex; a slide tells you which region you are in before it tells you anything else.
4
Your evidence board
Every scene gave you an evidence card, and the chart adds more. Sort each card into the column it supports: Points to a filter letting albumin through, Neither on its own, or Points to a benign trace. Some cards can honestly go in more than one place — that’s allowed, and the feedback tells you which cards decide the case.
5
Your verdict
Time to decide. Look back at your bet, then build your verdict from statements that hold up — no writing needed.
Look back at your prediction
One plus sign for protein, nothing else on the stick, mild evening ankle swelling — the most likely reading is…
Find the one you chose at the top. Does the evidence support it, refute it, or revise it?
- A benign trace — fever, exercise or standing all day can do it, and a repeat will be clear
- A tubule that failed to reclaim the small proteins a healthy filter always lets through
- A filter letting through the one protein it is built to hold
Build your verdict · no writing
Choose the statement that holds in each set. The ones you keep become your argument.
6
The finding
Sign · proteinuria to be read through the history
A Plus Sign That Should Not Have Scrolled Past
A trace of protein on a routine urinalysis at 49 — albumin, the one protein the glomerular filter exists to hold — with mild evening edemaExcess fluid in interstitial spaces., a normal volume and nothing else on the stick. In a blank-slate patient a repeat sample decides it. In a patient with a decade of untreated inflammation and years of high serum amyloid A, it must be quantified now and read as a possible first sign of a filter under attack. Chart entry: albuminuria flagged for quantification and follow-up because of the history behind it, not the size of the number.
Next · Chapter 2
The Kidney from the Outside In
Her kidneys were scanned and looked perfectly normal. Before you can say what a normal scan does and does not rule out, you need the kidney’s architecture — and the blood supply that makes it the greediest organ in the body.
Reliable information on rare diseases
NORD · NIH GARD · Orphanet · MedlinePlus Genetics: FMF · FMF & AID Global Association · Autoinflammatory Alliance · Global Genes · Amyloidosis Foundation
Stina has one rare disease. In the United States, about 1 in 10 people live with one of the more than 7,000 known rare diseases. These organizations are where patients, families and clinicians go for trustworthy information.
Hop to:
← Familial Mediterranean Fever — case home
All pages for Module 19 — The Urinary System
19.0 Module Overview
19.1 A Little Protein in the Urine
19.2 The Kidney from the Outside In
19.3 The Nephron and the Filtration Barrier
19.4 Reabsorption, Secretion, and How Urine Is Made
19.5 Master Regulator, and the Road Out
19.6 When the Filter Breaks
19.7 Not a Trace, an Alarm
19.8 Conclusion and Assessment
19.9 Evidence Behind the Case
All Modules
- Anatomical Language, Membranes & Homeostasis
- Just Enough Chemistry
- The Cell & Its Transport
- Making Cells & Proteins
- The Integumentary System
- The Skeletal System
- The Muscular System
- Nervous Tissue & the Senses
- The Spinal Cord
- The Brain & the Blood–Brain Barrier
- The Autonomic Nervous System
- Special Senses (in developmentThe process of growth and differentiation.)
- The Endocrine System
- Blood
- The Heart
- Blood Vessels
- The Digestive System
- The Respiratory System
- The Urinary System
- Fluids, Electrolytes & Acid–Base Balance
- The Reproductive System
- The Immune System
List of terms
- urinary system
- glucose
- proteins
- filtration
- albumin
- anatomy
- physiology
- retroperitoneal
- pancreas
- duodenum
- bladder
- urethra
- ureter
- hemoglobin
- cells
- nitrogenous wastes
- specific gravity
- water
- osmolarity
- plasma
- sodium
- potassium
- acid
- glomerulus
- polyuria
- pH
- urine
- signs
- aldosterone
- ions
- bicarbonate
- nephron
- minor calyx
- edema
- development